Journal of the National Congress of Historians
"Journal of the National Congress of Historians is an international peer-reviewed academic journal that publishes articles devoted to the in-depth study of the history of Kazakhstan, its surrounding regions, and regions that have influenced the development of culture in this area. The publication seeks to identify and analyze the historical interrelationships, cultural exchange, mutual influences and transformations that have shaped the unique face of Kazakhstan's history and its position in a broader global perspective. Founded by the National Congress of Historians, the journal works in close cooperation with a wide range of specialists representing different academic schools and traditions. A rigorous peer-review procedure focused academic integrity and scientific objectivity is designed to guarantee the high quality and relevance of published materials. The mission of the journal is to create a professional, intellectually rich platform for scholars engaged in interdisciplinary studies of historical processes that have determined socio-political, economic, cultural and ideological changes in Kazakhstan and its surrounding regions. The publication encourages both in-depth local research and comprehensive comparative analysis, taking into account the impact of cultural contacts, migrations, economic ties, intellectual exchanges, and political transformations. The Journal of the National Congress of Historians pays special attention to expanding the boundaries of historical knowledge, combining domestic and international approaches, as well as attracting new theoretical and methodological tools for the disclosure of historical subjects. The journal publishes original research, reviews, discussion articles and reviews that contribute to the formation of a holistic understanding of the regional past and its diverse aspects, reflecting the specificity of the historical development of Kazakhstan. Founder and publisher: Public Association “National Congress of Historians” Certificate of registration of a periodical printed edition and (or) information agency No. KZ21VPY00107515 dated December 10, 2024 issued by the Committee of Information and Archives of the Ministry of Communications and Information of the Republic of Kazakhstan. ISSN: 3105-0042 e-ISSN: 3105-0050
National Congress of Historians Public Association
On renaming streets of settlements of the Republic of Kazakhstan for the period from 1994 to 2024 (the first half of the year)
The article is devoted to a comprehensive analysis of the renaming of streets in the Republic of Kazakhstan in 1994-2024 as the most important tool for shaping the state policy of memory and the transformation of symbolic space. The process of toponymic change is considered in the context of decolonization and national identification strategies, which have been particularly developed in recent decades. Based on an extensive body of empirical data, including 14,929 officially documented cases of renaming, the study identifies quantitative and substantive trends characteristic of the modern Kazakhstani toponymic landscape. The paper uses a continuous sampling method followed by data classification by year, region, type of locality, and the nature of old and new names. Using quantitative and comparative analysis, the periods of the greatest activity of renaming were determined, among which the peak of 2018 stands out, as well as the features of regional dynamics, showing significant variability of approaches at the regional and city levels. The study demonstrates that rural settlements remain the most massive object of transformation, accounting for more than half of all changes. A meaningful analysis reveals a steady transition from Soviet ideological toponymy to names reflecting national history, cultural values and state priorities. The frequent replacement of such Soviet names as "Sovetskaya", "Oktyabrskaya", "Komsomolskaya", as well as the names of party figures, indicates the systemic nature of decommunization. New names, among which the names of national heroes, cultural figures predominate, as well as conceptual categories ("Dostyk", "Tauelsizdik", "Beibitshilik"), form an updated ideological layer of urban and rural topography. The results obtained are compared with modern international studies of political toponymy, which makes it possible to interpret the Kazakh experience as part of the global processes of rethinking history and reconfiguring urban space. The article contributes to the study of the symbolic politics of post-Soviet states and demonstrates the importance of toponymy as an instrument of cultural and ideological transformation. Keywords: street renaming, toponymy, memory policy, national memory, symbolic space, national identity, nation building
Copyright (c) 2025 A. Shakenov https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Mechanisms of assimilation of the Kipchaks in Hungary in the 13th-18th centuries
This article is devoted to a comprehensive study of the mechanisms of assimilation of the Kipchaks (Cumans) in medieval Hungary in the period from the 13th to the 18th century. The author's research demonstrates that the integration process was not straightforward and could only be reduced to the formal adoption of Christianity: even after Christianization in the 13th–14th centuries, the Kipchaks retained their ethnocultural identity for a long time. The key thesis of the study is that Christianization did not automatically lead to complete assimilation. Many Kipchaks accepted baptism formally, continuing to adhere to traditional customs. They retained characteristic funeral practices, including orienting graves to the east and placing amulets, food for the dead, animal bones in burials, and eggs and mirrors in women's burials. In addition, the Kipchaks wore ethnic clothes and specific hairstyles (a shaved crown, one or three braids), which the Hungarians associated with paganism, and also supported the clan-tribal social organization that served as the basis of their identity. The Catholic Church purposefully fought against these "structures of everyday life", demanding from the Kipchaks not only baptism, but also a complete rejection of traditional forms of life. The turning point came in the 15th century, when fundamental changes took place. The traditional clan-tribal organization collapsed, depriving the Kipchaks of the institutional basis for preserving their identity. The Kipchak aristocracy began to actively integrate into the Hungarian nobility, receiving royal awards and accepting the social norms of the ruling stratum. The transition from a nomadic lifestyle to sedentary agriculture accelerated, and nomadic camps (szállása) gradually transformed into stationary settlements. An active transition to the Hungarian language began, accompanied by the loss of Kipchak. It was in the 15th century that the status of a Christian actually became synonymous with belonging to Hungarian society: religious integration finally led to complete cultural assimilation. An important mechanism of assimilation was the inclusion of the Kipchak nobility in the power structures of Hungary. If in the 13th–14th centuries the Kipchaks served in the army in separate clan detachments, which strengthened their isolation, then later they joined the general Hungarian military formations. This contributed to their social integration, but only after the destruction of the clan-tribal system. By the 18th century, the process of assimilation had ended: the Kipchak language had practically disappeared, and the descendants of the Kipchaks had completely merged with the Hungarian ethnic group. At the same time, there was a brief renaissance of Cuman identity associated with the struggle for the rights of the inhabitants of Nagykunshaga and Kiskunshaga, but it was no longer based on real Kipchak traditions. Despite complete assimilation, the Kipchak heritage has been preserved in Hungarian toponymy, in individual linguistic borrowings and elements of folklore. Thus, the article shows that the assimilation of the Kipchaks in Hungary was a long and multifaceted process in which coercion and adaptation, resistance and the gradual adoption of Hungarian norms and practices were intertwined for five centuries. The decisive factors of integration were the destruction of the clan-tribal organization, the inclusion of the nobility in the Hungarian aristocracy, the transition to settlement and the loss of their native language.
Copyright (c) 2025 J. Pilipchuk https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Fragmentation and emotionality of collective memory in modern Kazakhstan
The relevance of the research is due to the deep crisis of historical consciousness in post-Soviet Kazakhstan. The collapse of the USSR led not only to a political, but also to an epistemological transformation: the former ideologized model of historical knowledge has lost its legitimacy, and the new one has not yet developed. In the context of pluralization of memory, the monopoly of the state and academic institutions on constructing narratives about the past has been challenged. This has created a need for an empirical study of how different generations interpret key events and figures in national history, forming a new identity. The research hypothesis suggests that collective memory in Kazakhstan is generationally fragmented: age groups differ: in the choice of iconic historical figures and events; in the sources of historical memory formation; in the degree of emotional involvement in the recent past. At the same time, the core of consensus symbols performing a consolidating function is preserved. The purpose of the study is to identify generational differences in collective representations of the past and to determine the mechanisms of constructing historical memory in modern Kazakh society. Research objectives: To conduct a sociological survey with age stratification to record key historical figures and events significant for different generations. To identify the main sources of historical memory formation (Internet, TV, books, family, etc.). To analyze how generational differences affect the perception of the traumatic and heroic past. To correlate empirical data with theoretical models of collective memory. To determine the stage of development of collective memory in Kazakhstan within the framework of A. Assman's typology. The novelty of the research lies in: applying an integrated approach to the study of collective memory, taking into account three age cohorts; fixing asymmetries in the perception of historical figures (for example, the high importance of Kassym‑Khan for young people and its absence among pensioners); identifying the projective function of memory: the past is used not so much for reconstruction as for constructing the future; demonstrations of the "remember not to forget" stage as the current phase of collective memory development in Kazakhstan. Main results: Consensus symbols (uniting all groups): Zhanibek and Kerey, Abai, Abylai Khan. They act as anchors of national identity. Generational asymmetry: young people actualize the distant past (the creation of the Khanate, Kassym Khan); adults make a rational selection, linking the past with modern statehood; pensioners retain Soviet optics (high rating of Abai, I. Altynsarin). Collective memory in Kazakhstan ‒ not a static canon, but a dynamic field of meanings, where emotionally colored images of the past serve as a material for responding to the challenges of modernity. Generational differences reflect different strategies for understanding history: institutionally imposed actualization (youth), rational selection (adults), and preservation of Soviet optics (pensioners). The projective nature of memory indicates an incomplete transition from the Imperial‑Soviet scheme to the national one, where new chronological and semantic frameworks are still being formed.
Copyright (c) 2025 Г. Султангазы, Л. Мукатаева, Ж. Нұрбаев (Автор) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Manifestations of Religious Influences in Turkic Culture and Manuscript Sources: The Cases of Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism
This section offers a comprehensive examination of the influence of Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism on the worldview of the ancient Turks. Drawing on written sources, archaeological materials and comparative historical analysis, the study identifies relic features of Zoroastrianism in Central Asia, including among Turkic tribes. The interconnection of Zoroastrian concepts with the cults of fire, water and earth, the sacralization of animals (especially the cults of the bull and the camel), funerary practices and purification rituals is demonstrated. The affinity between Avestan mythological imagery and traditional Turkic beliefs is emphasized, as well as the fact that Zoroastrianism in this region functioned not as a rigid dogmatic system but in close interaction with local religious practices. In addition, the article analyses the emergence of the Manichaean religion, its core doctrinal principles, cosmology and ethical system, and the routes of its dissemination via the Silk Road. The adoption of Manichaeism as the state religion of the Uyghur Khaganate (8th–11th centuries) is regarded as a unique phenomenon in the cultural history of the Turks. Special attention is paid to the impact of the Manichaean written tradition, book culture, visual arts and religious syncretism. The study concludes that although Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism did not become dominant religions in the Turkic cultural sphere, they nevertheless left a profound imprint on the spiritual life, cultural memory and symbolic systems of the Turkic peoples.
Copyright (c) 2025 Zhumabayeva https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Education and science in the Golden horde during the reign of khan Tokhtamysh (1380–1395)
The article examines the development of education, scientific knowledge, and the religious-intellectual life of the Golden Horde during the reign of Khan Tokhtamysh (1380–1395). Although this period was relatively brief and marked by political instability, it represents a turning point in the cultural and administrative history of the Horde. Tokhtamysh succeeded in restoring political unity after the prolonged turmoil known as the “Great Disarray,” and this stabilization created favorable conditions for the revitalization of educational and scholarly institutions. As a result, madrasahs resumed their activities, the study and dissemination of fiqh expanded, and the Golden Horde strengthened its intellectual ties with major centers of Islamic learning in Khwarazm, Transoxiana, and Khorasan. The article explores the significant role of the ulama many of whom sought refuge in Sarai following the conquests of Amir Timur in shaping legal thought, theological scholarship, and the broader educational environment. Particular attention is given to the activities of the Sufi orders Yasawiyya and Kubrawiyya, whose spiritual and pedagogical practices contributed both to the spread of Islamic knowledge and to the integration of nomadic and sedentary cultural traditions. Their influence facilitated the formation of a stable intellectual milieu in the late 14th century Golden Horde. Furthermore, the study analyzes how the intellectual and ideological climate of Tokhtamysh’s reign is reflected in Turkic-language literary works, especially in the epic The Tale of Edige. This epic serves not only as a monumental piece of oral literature but also as a historical and ideological document that preserves societal values, notions of legitimacy, and representations of political contestation. Overall, the abstract highlights Tokhtamysh’s reign as a period of cultural and intellectual renewal, during which the restoration of political cohesion was accompanied by the consolidation of Islamic legal traditions, the revival of educational institutions, and the strengthening of transregional scholarly networks developments that shaped the subsequent evolution of the Golden Horde and its successor states.
Copyright (c) 2025 D. Suleimenova https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
The role of the Katwan and Talas Kurultai in the military-political confrontation between Kaidu and Borak in the second half of the 60s of the 13th century
The author's work examines the circumstances and consequences of the Talas Kurultai of 1269, a key event traditionally interpreted in historiography as the legal boundary of the collapse of the Mongol Empire into independent uluses. Based on a comprehensive analysis of narrative sources (Rashid al-Din, Wassaf, "Yuan Shi"), as well as numismatic data, the dynamics of political processes in the second half of the 1260s in Central Asia is reconstructed. The relevance is due to the controversial nature and chronology of the Kurultai: a number of researchers (following A. de Hausson) allows two meetings to be held ‒ in 1267 (Katwan) and 1269 (Talas), while the dominant tradition recognizes only the Talas Kurultai. Contradictions are generated by discrepancies between sources: Rashid al-Din emphasizes the alliance of Kaidu and Borak, their joint struggle against Kublai and Mengu Timur, as well as the complex diplomatic game around the invasion of the Ilkhanate; Wassaf describes the reconciliation of Kaidu and Borak in Katwan (1267) and fixes other accents in the chronology and the composition of the participants. The purpose of the author's research is to identify the logic of interaction between the Genghisid uluses (Jochi, Chagatai, Ogedei, Ilkhanate) and the role of Kaan Kublai in the processes of decentralization of the empire. Methods and sources. A comparative analysis of Persian (Rashid al-Din, Wassaf) and Chinese ("Yuan shi") sources, as well as data from Jochid numismatics, is applied. Special attention is paid to: the chronology of Borak's military clashes with Kaidu and Mengu Timur; the content of the decisions of the Kurultai (Transoxiana section, ban on staying in cities, plans to invade the Ilkhanate); diplomatic missions (Terel's embassy to Meng Timur, Kublai's messengers to Abaga); the symbolism of Meng Timur's coins (the hieroglyph "ji" as a status marker in the imperial hierarchy). The author concludes: In 1267, the Katvan Kurultai took place, consolidating the defeat of Borak and the dominance of Kaidu in Transoxiana; his decisions included the division of territories unfavorable for Chagataid. The Talas Kurultai of 1269 established a new balance of power: Borak received two—thirds of Transoxiana, and Kaidu and Mengu Timur - one-third; a joint invasion of the Ilkhanate was agreed. However, neither Kaidu nor Mengu Timur intended to fulfill their obligations.: Kipchak and Chapat left Borak's army before the battle with Abaga, and Mengu Timur probably had to simulate an invasion of the Ilkhanate in order to disorient the enemy. Kublai played a key mediation role: through embassies (Terel, messenger Tekechek), he helped coordinate the actions of Mengu Timur and Abaga, which led to the defeat of Borak in 1270. After the defeat of Borak, Kublai officially approved the status of Mengu Timur and Abaga, giving them labels (autumn 1270). This is confirmed by both written sources ("Biography of Terel", Rashid al-Din) and numismatics (coins with the hieroglyph "ji", indicating the subordinate but high status of the Jochid Khan). Thus, the Talas Kurultai was not a one-time act of declaring the independence of the uluses, but became a stage in a long-term political intrigue in which: Kaidu and Mengu Timur used Borak to weaken the Ilkhanate; Kublai maintained formal suzerainty, legitimizing the regional khans through labels.; The real decisions of the kurultai turned out to be fiction: neither side was going to comply with the agreements, which predetermined the collapse of Borak. Thus, the collapse of the empire was gradual, combining the formal recognition of the power of the khan with the actual autonomy of the uluses. Numismatic and diplomatic data make it possible to clarify the status of Mengu Timur as a "wang" (subordinate ruler), rather than an independent khan, which corrects the traditional interpretation of events.
Copyright (c) 2025 A. Porsin https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Kyrgyz People in the History of the Golden Horde
This article analyzes the role of Kyrgyz tribes in the political and military-historical history of the Golden Horde in the 14th – early 15th centuries. The relevance of this study stems from the insufficient development of this topic in the historiography of the Ulus of Jochi, where the Kyrgyz are often considered peripheral. The geographical proximity of Kyrgyz tribes to the eastern borders of the Golden Horde, as well as their participation in migratory, military, and political processes in the region, led to their persistent presence in sources from the Golden Horde period. Objectives. The purpose of this study is to reconstruct the nature and forms of interaction between Kyrgyz tribes and the Golden Horde during its political destabilization and subsequent collapse. To achieve this goal, the following tasks are addressed: identifying the areas of Kyrgyz settlement during the Golden Horde period; Analysis of reports from Eastern and European sources on contacts between the Kyrgyz and the Golden Horde khans; examination of military conflicts and allied ties between the Kyrgyz tribes and various dynastic groups of the Ulus of Jochi; determination of the place of the Kyrgyz in the ethnopolitical processes of the Eastern Desht-i-Kipchak. Materials and methods. The source base of the study consists of Persian chronicles (Mu'in ad-Din Natanzi, Mahmud ibn Wali, Sharaf ad-Din Yazdi), works of Eastern authors, data from Russian annals, as well as numismatic materials and late medieval compilations. Methodologically, the work is based on the principles of source analysis, the comparative historical method, and a critical comparison of different types of written evidence, which allows for a refinement of the chronology of events and the interpretation of ethnopolitical processes. The study established that the Kyrgyz played a significant role in the history of the Golden Horde's eastern borderlands, acting as an independent military and political factor. It is shown that Kyrgyz lands served as a refuge for individual Golden Horde rulers and dynastic groups during periods of civil strife, as well as an arena for military campaigns by the Golden Horde khans (Mubarak Khoja, Pulad Khan, and Chekre). It is revealed that relations between the Kyrgyz and representatives of the Shibanid nobility were predominantly good-neighborly, while the strengthening of central authority in the Horde was accompanied by punitive campaigns against the Kyrgyz tribes. Conclusions. It is concluded that the interaction of the Kyrgyz tribes with the Golden Horde was determined primarily by geography and the dynamics of internal political struggle in the Ulus of Jochi. The Kyrgyz tribes were not passive subjects of the Golden Horde's policies; instead, they actively influenced the military and political situation in Eastern Desht-i-Kipchak. The collapse of the Golden Horde and subsequent migrations contributed to the movement of the Kyrgyz to Semirechye and the Eastern Tien Shan, which determined their subsequent place in the history of Central Asia and the early states of the post-Horde region.
Copyright (c) 2025 R. Abdumanapov https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
The Legacy of the Great Steppe in the politics of historical memory of Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan
The steppe civilization has played a fundamental role in shaping the cultural and political space of Central Asia. The nomadic mode of life and its underlying worldview ‒ dynamism, cosmocentrism, commitment to spirituality, and heroism ‒ have formed durable identity models that continue to be actively employed within the historical memory politics of contemporary states in the region. This research examines how the legacy of the Great Steppe is reflected in the historical memory of Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan ‒ countries linked by common origins yet pursuing different strategies of national heritage representation. In Kyrgyzstan, the central symbol of steppe identity is the Manas epic, functioning as a historical and cultural code that ensures generational continuity and constructs the image of a unifying national hero. Its interaction with figures such as Kurmanjan Datka, Ormon Khan, and other nineteenth-century leaders demonstrates the state’s deliberate policy of strengthening patriotism and legitimizing power through references to a heroic past. Uzbekistan’s historical memory combines nomadic roots with the legacy of powerful sedentary urban centers ‒ Bukhara and Samarkand. The Alpamysh epic and the figure of Amir Timur symbolize the synthesis of steppe mobility and urban might, reflecting the region’s capacity to influence the development of world science and culture. Uzbekistan actively institutionalizes this heritage through cultural diplomacy and international cooperation, reinforcing its role as a custodian of ancient civilizations. Turkmenistan, by contrast, relies on the mythologized figure of Oghuz Khan to advance an autochthonous narrative of origin, linking the modern state to ancient steppe tribes. The strict control of state ideology over historical interpretation results in selective memory practices focused on glorification and the exclusion of the colonial period. The comparative analysis shows that despite the shared steppe legacy, each country deploys its past differently ‒ from an open public dialogue (Kyrgyzstan) to a tightly ideologized and closed model (Turkmenistan). These strategies reflect broader political contexts, in which historical memory becomes a tool of state identity, external positioning, and internal legitimacy.
Copyright (c) 2025 T. Marmontova https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Nogais and cumans: continuity in culture, tribal structure, genetics, and anthropology
To accurately position the Nogais on the ethnocultural map of Eurasia, it is essential to understand their ethnic and cultural roots. One of the key questions that can help in this matter is the continuity of the Nogais with Western or Eastern Kipchaks. Purpose and Objectives of the Study. The aim of this study is to determine the accuracy of associating the Nogais with Western or Eastern Kipchaks and their continuity. Within this framework, an attempt has been made to analyze the material and spiritual culture of the Nogais by comparing it with that of the Western Kipchaks, as well as to draw parallels in tribal composition, population genetics, and anthropology. Materials and Methods. A wide range of scholarly works has been utilized, including studies of Cuman and Nogai culture, tribal structures, genetic research findings, as well as materials from anthropology and craniology. Novelty of the Research. This is a continuation of the first comprehensive study on the Nogais' affiliation with either Western or Eastern Kipchaks. For the first time, the features of Cuman and Nogai costumes are compared. Three branches of the "Kipchak" Y-DNA haplogroup have been identified. An attempt has been made to compile a correspondence table of Nogai and Cuman clans. Results. A wide range of narratives confirms the concept of the Nogais as direct descendants of the Cuman population of the Western Desht-i Kipchak. They have preserved its cultural features, tribal and genetic continuity, as well as anthropological characteristics.
Copyright (c) 2025 А. Makhsutov https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Discussion about the ethnonyms «Kazakh» and «Kirghiz» on the pages of the pre-revolutionary Astrakhan newspaper «Idel
This article provides a translation and introduces into scholarly circulation a series of materials from the pre-revolutionary Arabic-script Muslim newspaper «Idel», published between 1907 and 1914. The study examines publications from late 1911 and early 1912. These materials consist of a debate between Hasan Ali Efendi, a Kazakh teacher from the Akmola region, and Kayum Kulatki, a Tatar journalist likely of Mishar origin, who lived among the Kazakhs of the Inner Bukey Horde, part of the Astrakhan Governorate. The subject of the debate is the permissibility or impermissibility of using the ethnonyms "Kazakh" and "Kirghiz" in reference to the Bukey Kazakhs of the Kishi Zhuz. The opponents present various arguments to refute each other's positions and support their own viewpoints. In the concluding section, the author draws conclusions and extracts valuable ethnographic data from the analyzed material, particularly regarding the origins of certain clans of the Kishi and Orta Zhuz of the Kazakh people, as well as the evolution of the ethnonyms "Kazakh" and "Kirghiz" in usage by Russian and Türk-Muslim, especially Kazakh, politicians, Orientalists, and public figures.
Copyright (c) 2025 A. Makhsutov https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Uraz-Muhammed in the Context of Kazakh‑Russian Relations at the End of the 16th Century
The aim of the article is to study the position and role of Uraz-Muhammed — the future khan of the Kasym Khanate — in Kazakh‑Russian negotiations of 1594–1595. The research is based on materials identified by the author in the Russian State Archive of Ancient Acts (Moscow, Russian Federation). These materials were cross-checked against copies preserved in the Central State Archive of the Republic of Kazakhstan (Almaty) and in the Scientific Archive of the “Gylym Orda” RSE (Almaty). In addition, published documents on the topic were systematized and comprehensively reviewed. During the research, it was revealed that the established historiographical view — that Sultan Uraz-Muhammed’s role was limited solely to efforts to secure his release, and that this was the main goal of Tauekel Khan’s embassy to Moscow in 1594–1595 — is incorrect. At the Russian royal court, Uraz-Muhammed, as a direct descendant and close relative of ruling khans, held a high status and was involved in various state duties. This included participating in some diplomatic reception events with representatives of foreign states. However, such participation was mostly ceremonial in nature. Yet in the case of the Kazakh embassy, taking into account the sultan’s lineage and possibly preserved connections, Uraz-Muhammed was directly involved in negotiations conducted by the Kazakh envoy Kul-Muhammed. Archival documents show that Uraz-Muhammed met with the Kazakh envoy Kul-Muhammed not just once, as commonly believed in historical literature, but at least three times. At least two of these meetings took place in Moscow, where the Kazakh diplomatic mission was stationed, and one meeting occurred at the sultan’s estate. The article also demonstrates that Uraz-Muhammed played a significant role in establishing Kazakh‑Persian relations. With his direct involvement, a meeting was arranged in Moscow between the Persian envoy Gadibek and the Kazakh envoy Kul-Muhammed, who were both present in the city at the same time. Documents mentioning the rewards granted to Uraz-Muhammed, as well as the subsequent rise in his political status — including Tsar Boris Godunov’s official designation of him as khan of the Kasym Khanate — serve as evidence that Uraz-Muhammed successfully asserted himself during Kazakh‑Russian negotiations. Overall, analysis of the sources clearly shows that Uraz-Muhammed played a significant role in the establishment of diplomatic ties between the Kazakh Khanate and the Rus’ state at the end of the 16th century, and was directly involved in these processes.
Copyright (c) 2025 Н. Лапин (Автор) https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
Orphanages in Central Kazakhstan in the 1940s: Health Conditions and Sanitary Living Standards of the Children
This article examines the operation of orphanages in Central Kazakhstan during the war years, based on archival materials and personal memoirs. The focus of the study is on orphanages and children/adolescents who were left without families and placed under state care for various reasons—famine, deportations, the Great Patriotic War, evacuation, political repression and the arrest of parents, death of parents, and other factors. The author investigates the material and living conditions, housing, and sanitary-hygienic standards of children's accommodation. Particular attention is given to issues of health and the incidence of disease among the children. The author concludes that the sharp increase in the number of children in Central Kazakhstan's orphanages in the 1940s was primarily due to the outbreak of war, which triggered mass child evacuations. A significant proportion of the orphans also came from families of repressed parents. The existing children's institutions were not prepared to accommodate such a large influx, which led to extremely difficult conditions. In particular, overcrowding and malnutrition intensified, sanitary conditions deteriorated, and disease rates rose sharply.
Copyright (c) 2025 K. Abdrakhmanova https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
The natural and climatic factors in the history of the Golden Horde and the Successor States
This article examines the influence of the natural and climatic factors on the history of the Golden Horde and the successor states. In Russian historiography, as a result of the relatively small number of written sources. The practice of using data obtained in the course of paleoclimatological and paleogenetic studies in historical research has been established for a long time. This interdisciplinary approach was widely implemented in the study. The combination of data taken from various written sources made it possible to close some gaps in the history of medieval Turkic states. The concept of economic and cultural policies proposed in the article made it possible to substantiate the pattern of the appearance of the Golden Horde in Eurasia. Moreover, the "Black Death", repeated outbreaks of plague and other plague-like epidemics caused by the Little Ice Age, large-scale famine, and livestock deaths, played an important role in subsequent political processes. In the conditions of the large–scale cooling of the XIV–XVI centuries, the disappearance of the political, technological, and cultural leader of the Golden Horde region was a natural result. The application of paleoclimatic research data has made it possible to chronologically outline the main stages of this process. The rise or fall of the role of one or another heir of the Golden Horde in the second half of the XV–early XVI centuries was largely predetermined by the success of adapting its military strategy to rapidly changing climatic conditions. Therefore, one of the most important factors is overcoming the massive population decline, taking into account technological re-equipment and creating an effective management system. This was especially evident in the Moscow-Kazan confrontation. Despite the numerical and technological superiority over the Tatar opponent, the Muscovite state was forced to abandon large-scale campaigns. Gradually moving to the tactics of erecting new fortifications in the occupied territories and conducting raid operations deep in enemy territory during the winter period. Kazan, due to its proximity to the resource base, even despite the more archaic management system and permanent political crisis, was able to effectively reflect Moscow's expansion for a fairly long period. A major role in this process was played by the natural and climatic changes that occurred at the beginning of the 16th century. The warring parties' dependence on available resources increased. The coming warming forced the Moscow state to return to the tactics of organizing large campaigns. However, without the consolidation of all available resources and the construction of new strongholds in the Volga region, it would have been impossible to win the confrontation with Kazan and in the Volga region.
Copyright (c) 2025 T. Khaydarov https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Ethnopolitical position of the Karakalpaks in the Kazakh khanates in the 17th - early 18th centuries
The article examines the history of the settlement and ethnopolitical life of the Karakalpak people as part of the Kazakh khanates in the 17th-18th centuries. The article provides data on the ethnic history of the Karakalpaks on the territory of modern Kazakhstan, taking into account the late period of the Ulus of Jochi through the prism of the formation of the Karakalpaks as a single ethnic group based on different proto-Turkic, late Turkic, and Mongolian tribes. Since the entire medieval history takes place in close connection with the common ancestors related to Kazakhs, the Karakalpaks were known both under another ethnic name and under their name, as historians assume. Therefore, the author of the article tried to collect and analyze materials in which the Karakalpaks are mentioned both in alliance with the Kazakhs and in opposition to them, since the Karakalpaks were part of the Kazakh khanates for almost two hundred years. Also, in the article based on European, Russian, and Eastern sources are given theoretical conclusions of leading experts are given, confirming that the bulk of Karakalpaks as a semi-independent state were part of the state of Tauke Khan and Abulkhair Khan. At the same time, a small part of Karakalpaks lived in the so-called Uzbek khanates and Aral possession. The article illustrates the dawn and crisis of relations of Karakalpaks with Kazakh khanates on the one hand, and on the other, their disintegration over the three zhuzes. Also, the article provides information about the differences in economic life from Kazakhs, cities where Karakalpaks lived and actively participated in trade relations, and played their role in the development of these cities. The reasons for the deterioration of relations with the Kazakh khanates, as sources show, were not only the levies collected from the Karakalpaks, but also active diplomatic missions with Russia, which eventually led to the final resettlement of the Karakalpaks from the Syr Darya delta first to Zhanadarya at the end of the 18th century and their further movement to the Amu Darya delta and their subordination to the Khiva khans. The article also highlights the issue of the presence of their own statehood among the Karakalpaks. Although over a long period, the Kazakh khans appointed sultans to govern the Karakalpaks, who nevertheless relied on the authority of local leaders. At the same time, these sultans pursued an independent policy and relations with neighboring peoples, which is confirmed by documents. As the study of specialized literature shows, the main materials in the study of the ethnic history of the Karakalpaks were archival documents and scientific works, which were carefully studied by leading specialists. Fundamental works were written on the basis of these materials.
Copyright (c) 2025 M. Utebaev https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Controversial Issues in the Biography of Sultan Ghazi Bulatovich Valikhanov
This article examines controversial issues in the biography of Sultan Ghazi Bulatovich Valikhanov, a little-studied figure of the 19th-century Kazakh aristocracy and intelligentsia. His figure has long been overshadowed by the more famous Shokan Valikhanov in historiography, despite Sultangazi's significant contribution to the socio-political, military, and intellectual life of the Russian Empire and the Kazakh steppe. The relevance of this study stems from the need to rethink the role of educated Chingizid sultans in shaping the historical consciousness of Kazakh society and in the context of Russian-Kazakh relations. Objectives. The purpose of this article is to reconstruct the biography of Sultan Ghazi Bulatovich Valikhanov and identify controversial aspects of his life, career, and public activities. The objectives of the study include: analysis of the origin and early stage of formation of the personality of Sultangazi; study of his military service and relations with the highest administration of the Russian Empire; consideration of his participation in socio-political and intellectual discussions of the late 19th century; identification of the role of Valikhanov in the discussion of the resettlement policy and the land issue; determination of his place in the history of the Kazakh intelligentsia. Materials and methods. The source base of the study consists of publications of the Russian periodicals of the 19th century (the magazines Niva, Severny Vestnik, the newspapers Novoye Vremya, Sankt-Peterburgskie Vedomosti), the works of Russian publicists and writers (G. Uspensky, N. Konshin, P. Bykov), archival materials of the Chancellery of the Steppe Governor-General from the funds of the Central State Archives of the Republic of Kazakhstan, as well as memoirs and scientific research of Soviet and contemporary authors. The methodological basis is based on historical-comparative, retrospective, and personality studies, which allowed us to identify cause-and-effect relationships and the evolution of Sultangazi Valikhanov's views. Results. The study revealed that Sultangazi Valikhanov had a complex path from a graduate of the Omsk Cadet Corps and an officer in the Russian army to a prominent public figure and journalist in St. Petersburg. He enjoyed the patronage of high-ranking officials, but simultaneously faced intrigue and accusations of disloyalty. His activities in the capital of the Russian Empire were particularly significant, where he became a spokesman for the interests of Kazakh society, criticized the resettlement policy in the Akmola region, and advocated the harmonious coexistence of the nomadic and agricultural lifestyles. It is shown that Valikhanov acted as a representative of the "new Kazakh," who sought to combine a European education with the preservation of national identity. Conclusions Sultan Gazi Bulatovich Valikhanov was a key, yet underappreciated, figure in 19th-century Kazakh history. His biography reflects the complexities of the Kazakh elite's adaptation to the imperial system, as well as the contradictions between service to the state and protecting the interests of their own people. Sultangazi Valikhanov's work testifies to the formation of early forms of Kazakh social thought and political self-awareness. Further study of his legacy allows for a deeper understanding of the mechanisms of interaction between Kazakhstan and Russia, as well as the origins of the modern Kazakh intelligentsia.
Copyright (c) 2025 А. Kashkimbayev https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Turkisms and Mongolisms in the work of Emir Rukn ad-din Baybars al-Mansuri al-Dawadar "Zubdat al-fikra fi tarih al-hijra"
The article attempts to present borrowed words in the work of a prominent representative of the Mamluk era – Emir Rukn al-Din Baybars al-Mansuri al-Dauadar (died 1325), "Zubdat al-fikra fi tarih al-hijra" ("Cream of thoughts on the reckoning of the hijra"), an important historical chronicle of the 14th century for the Early Mamluk period. The value of the composition lies in the fact that the author himself is an eyewitness to many events. Occupying high posts in the Mamluk state, he owned the emerging situation in the internal and external arenas and had direct access to information. The work "Zubdat al-fikra fi tarih al-hijra" was first published in full in the original in Arabic in 1998 by D. Richardz. At the moment, it has not been translated into other languages​ in the world. Some of its fragments were translated into Russian. However, the composition is widely used among Mamluk scholars of various countries and serves as one of the main sources for the Mamluk era. As the name suggests, the information presented is arranged in chronological order and is based on the Muslim calendar – hijra. They include news of the death of famous personalities of the Muslim world, key events that took place in the described period in the region of North Africa, the Middle East, and also briefly cover the history of the Hulaguids, the Golden Horde, etc. In addition to its historical significance, the work in question is also of interest in terms of language and presentation style. During the complete translation of D. Richards' publication into Russian, we identified borrowings from various languages ​ ​ in the Arabic text. They are for the most part Persians, Turkisms and Mongolisms by the subject matter of the composition itself. As for the Persians, they act as an organic part of the vocabulary of the Arabic language of the Mamluk era. The purpose of this study is to show the presence of Turkisms in the text of "Teeth" and to justify their use. At the same time, according to our observations, here their number seems to be large, in comparison with other sources on the history of the Mamluks and the Mamluk–Mongol interactions (Abul–Fida, etc.). We believe that this circumstance is primarily explained by the Turkic origin of the author, who intersperses individual words and terms into the text of the story without translating them into Arabic. And if some of them are understandable to multilingual readers and researchers due to their awareness of historical terms in the field of mamluk studies (such as, for example, sanjak, khan, kagan, etc.), then the meaning of others in the context of the sentence can only be understood by a Turkic–speaking person (for example, "syyyk" – liquid, "spread" – a rug for prayer, etc.). Given this fact, it seems important to compile a complete glossary of such Turkisms in the work of Rukn al–Din Baibars al–Mansuri al-Dawadar, "Zubdat al–Fikra fi Tarih al–hijra." Similar attempts have previously been made by individual researchers, in particular from Arab countries. But often, due to their lack of possession of one of the modern Turkic languages, they reveal only the basic terms relating to the Mamluk era. While in the text of medieval chronicles, you can find ordinary words of Turkic origin. We believe that the raised issues are of a pronounced interdisciplinary nature and can become the subject of discussion among historians, orientalists–Arabists, linguists, Turkologists, and Kazakh scholars. The goal set in the study was implemented by directly referring to the original work in Arabic and a text sample of Turkisms and Mongolisms, as well as identifying the context of their use. The identification of Turkisms in this work is important not only for characterizing its language and style, but also for determining the place and influence of the Turks in Islamic civilization using the example of the Mamluks.
Copyright (c) 2025 S. Tuleubayeva https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Place of Chagatai Ulus and Mogulistan in the history of Kazakh ethnos: analysis of traditional historical memory of Kazakhs)
The subject of this study is the analysis of possible ethnogenetic connection of the population of Chagatai ulus and Mogulistan with the population of Semirechye of the Kazakh Khanate period. The purpose of the study is to substantiate the position that there is no direct continuity between the clan system of Mogulistan and the Elder Kazakh zhuz. The data of the historical memory of Kazakhs, preserved in the form of genealogical legends-shezhire and reflecting their own ideas about their origin and identity, were used for the analysis. Based on the genealogies, written record of which took place since the end of the 18th century, it can be seen that the Kazakhs of all three zhuzes connected their past exclusively with the ulus Dzhuchi and included representatives of the Dzhuchi dynasty - Dzhuchi/Zhayilkhan, Uzbek/Ozbek, Shiban/Sapian - in their genealogies. The genealogies of Kazakhs of the Elder Juz linked their origin with the legendary Maiky-biy, who had a real prototype - an associate of Juchi and Batu uyshun Maiky/Baiku. A number of clans of the Middle and Younger Juz may have originated from clan groups that were part of Mogulistan, but they do not reflect this fact in their genealogies. Genealogical legends of a number of different clans of the Elder, Middle and Younger zhuzes have many coincidences of both characters and plots. This suggests the unity of origin of some clans that later joined different Kazakh associations and the relatively late division into zhuzes and distribution of clans between zhuzes. Taking into account that in the 17th-18th century Kazakhs were displaced from the territory of Semirechye by Oirats and there was a constant redistribution of territory between different Kazakh clans, accompanied by their structural reformatting, there can be no direct ethnogenetic continuity between the population of Mogulistan and the Senior Kazakh zhuz. The historical connection with the ulus Dzhuchi can be traced not only in the historical memory of Kazakhs, but also of Kyrgyz clans, whose epic tradition is closely connected with the Kazakh one and preserves elements characteristic of the Dzhuchid tradition - legends about Yedig, the Nogai origin of the main heroes, the legend of Dzhuchi's death. All this suggests that a significant part of the Elder Zhuz of Kazakhs and part of Kyrgyz clans formed within the framework of the Dzhuchi ulus, while the Moghulistan origin groups of the population of Semirechye, having joined the Kazakhs, were completely deprived of the historical memory of their Moghulistan origin.
Copyright (c) 2026 A. Kuzembayuly, Ye. Abil https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
The Role of Kipchaks in the Formation of the Karakalpak People: Settlement and Ethnic Characteristics of Kipchak Tribes
The role of the Kipchaks in the formation of the Karakalpak people has been analyzed, with special attention given to their ethnocultural characteristics within the Karakalpak composition and the territory of their settlement in the Southern Aral Sea region. The Kipchaks played a crucial role in the ethnic and cultural history of the Karakalpaks. Indeed, the Kipchaks left a significant imprint on the ethnic and cultural heritage of the Karakalpak people. Their influence was evident in various aspects, ranging from shaping the ethnic composition to impacting cultural traditions and economic practices. The settlement of the Kipchak tribes in the Southern Aral Sea region marked a crucial stage that influenced the formation of the Karakalpak people as an ethnic group. The Kipchak and Nogai elements in Karakalpak folklore are evident in storylines, characters, and motifs that reflect the traditions, values, and historical events of these peoples. This influence also emphasizes the close ties and interactions between these groups, which, in turn, enriched the cultural heritage of the Karakalpaks. One of the key indicators characterizing the level of Kipchakization is the inclusion of a particular people's languages in the Kipchak group of Turkic languages. As is known, the fourth period in the development of Turkic languages - the Middle Turkic period (10th-15th centuries) - is notable because it is precisely during this time that the foundation of all modern Turkic languages was formed. The degree of participation of Turkic-speaking ethnic components, tribal groups, clans, and tribal unions in the formation of the Karakalpak ethnos varied. Among the largest ethnic components, one can distinguish the Pechenegs, Oghuz, Kipchaks, Kangly, Kungrats, Mangyts, as well as numerous tribal groups integrated into the clan structure of the Karakalpaks. During the Golden Horde period, intercultural interaction between two distinct socio-cultural groups - settled and nomadic peoples - took place in the territories of the Syr Darya and Aral steppes. This interaction contributed to changes in the ethnic composition of the local population, the transformation of language, as well as the development and modification of the material culture of the peoples of the Aral Sea region.
Copyright (c) 2025 M. Davletyarov https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Specifics of the incorporation of Kalmyks (Kalmaks) within the Bashkirs and ethno-genetic links with Mongolian-speaking peoples
The process of incorporation within the Bashkirs took place not only through adoption but also through the formation of separate clan volosts by descendants of other ethnic groups, which is illustrated by the existence of the Oirat, Sart, Merkit, Kalmak, and other Bashkir volosts. A number of Bashkir tribal clans (tribes) include subdivisions (ara, naҫel) with the name ҡalmaҡ. Aim and objectives: the formation of the Kalmyk (Kalmak) clan within the Bashkirs and their ethno-genetic ties. In connection with the specified purpose, it is planned to carry out a complex analysis of the existing historiography on the subject of the realised research, to compare its materials with the data of ethno-genetic researches, to consider the questions of transformation of ethno-cultural identity and demographic development of Kalmyks (Kalmaks). Materials and methods: The main methods of the research were comparative-historical and retrospective analyses. The authors analysed a wide range of sources of already published scientific works and information from archives, including from the fund ‘Kalmyk cases of the Embassy Order’ of the Russian State Agency for Data Analysis and Data from regional archives. Results: the Oirats, who formed a separate Uirat (Oirat) volost in the Bashkir Trans-Urals in the XIII-XIV centuries, lost their compactness of residence due to a number of reasons and were completely incorporated into other clan groups of Bashkirs. They were not ancestors of the Bashkirs of the Kalmak clan (Kalmakskaya volost). Based on archival materials, an attempt is made to trace the fates of the families of Kalmyk origin - the founders of the Kalmak volost in the Trans-Ural region. The demographic development of the Kalmak clan group in the Trans-Ural region is analysed and information about other Kalmyk groups within the Bashkirs is noted. The ethnogenetic kinship of Bashkirs of Kalmyk descent with various ethnographic groups of Mongolian-speaking peoples and Kazakhs is analysed by comparing the obtained materials of genetic studies (on the Y-chromosome). Conclusions: Kalmyks settled among the Bashkirs acquired the rights and duties of equal members of the Bashkir communities. In the descendants of the Kalmak family, the genetic line Nlcl-F4205 haplogroup Nlc1-M178 is represented in the Bashkirs with the highest frequency, and the geographically distant populations of Mongol-Tsaatan (more than half of this group are carriers of this genetic line), some part of the Tuvinian-Tozhin, Mongol-Derbet, Mongol-Togout, and Kalmyk-Khoshuut are located on it. The descendants of Kalmyks incorporated into the southern and southeastern Bashkir tribes - Burzyan, Yurmaty, Kypchak, Usyargen, and Tangaur - are also of Kalmyk origin.
Copyright (c) 2025 R. Asilguzhin, E. Khabibullin https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
The Figure of Emir Edigu in Russian, Turkic, and Kazakh Historiography
This article examines the study and evaluation of the role of Amir Edigu, ruler of the Golden Horde (Ulugh Ulus) from 1396–1419 and supreme biy (beklerbek) of the Nogai Horde, within Soviet/Russian, Turkic, and Kazakh historiography. As the uluses under Amir Edigu's authority bordered the Russian state and maintained close interrelations, Russian written sources preserve abundant information concerning him. Russian sources report that legends about Edigu were recorded from the Kazakhs by G.I. Spassky and from the Nogais by A. Khodzko. Prominent Russian historians, such as B. Grekov and A. Yakubovsky, characterize Edigu negatively. Given that the Russian state existed under the dominion of the Golden Horde for 240 years, Russian historians depicted Amir Edigu, one of this ulus's rulers, as a cruel tyrant due to his repeated raids on Russian lands precipitated by the non–payment of tribute. Nevertheless, several researchers, including M. Saparghaliev, V. Trepavlov, and R. Pothekaev, offer a more objective assessment of Amir Edigu's personality. V. Trepavlov posits that Edigu founded the Nogai Ulus, which originated from the Golden Horde. He appears in historical chronicles under the titles “temnik”, “amir”, and “beklerbek”. The state formed in the 1390s was established in Western Kazakhstan, between the Zhaiyk (Ural) and Emba rivers, and subsequently expanded its territories. Sh. Ualikhanov, A. Margulan, along with scholars B. Ayagan and M. Alpysbes, maintain that Edigu was born in the settlement of Kumkent on the slopes of the Karatau mountains, and suggest that the Nogais may have migrated as far as Kyrgyzstan at some point. “Historical epic poems preserved in the people's memory play an important role in clarifying the figure of Edige”. Shokan Ualikhanov was the first, in the 19th century, to provide a scholarly analysis of the historical foundations of the epic common to the Turkic world. He noted, “The Zhir (Epic) of Edigu relates to events at the end of the 14th century and must have been composed at the beginning of the 15th century. This is evidenced by many archaic words and expressions no longer present in the language”. The epic “Edige” has been preserved in the collective memory of Turkic peoples – including Kazakhs, Karakalpaks, Nogais, Tatars, Bashkirs, Uzbeks, and Turkmens – who widely incorporated it into their culture from the 14th–15th centuries. However, commencing in 1944 within the Soviet Union, epics concerning Edigu and his descendants were perceived as glorifying the past and attempting to whitewash the Mongol–Tatar invasion, leading to their removal from publication. Following the collapse of the USSR and the attainment of independence by numerous Turkic nations, the “Edige” epic experienced renewed publication and research. According to contemporary researchers, approximately 50 variants of the “Edige” epic exist today. However, scholarly opinion holds that the extant versions contain numerous discrepancies when compared with historical sources and perspectives regarding Edigu's personality. Nonetheless, Edigu dedicated much of his active life to the struggle for power and the consolidation of the Golden and Nogai Hordes. Therefore, in conclusion, several facets of his personality merit emphasis: First, Edigu's persona persists in the historical memory of most Turkic peoples, as does his ambition to unify the Turkic nations. After centuries, his name has been restored and has assumed its place in history as the ruler of a significant Turkic empire in medieval Eurasia. Second, Amir Edigu's life course and statecraft demonstrate his qualities as a charismatic, adept, and resolute politician, military commander, and skilled diplomat. Third, as the ruler of the Nogai–Kipchak uluses, Edigu championed their interests. Consequently, he endures in the historical memory of the Kazakh people and is revered to this day as “El qamyn jegen er Edige”, translating to the hero who cared for the people. Fourth, it is a recognized fact within historical scholarship today that the foundation of the Kazakh people and state comprises Kipchak clans and tribes. These groups were historically proximate to the Nogais, sharing common origins, related languages, a unified faith, mentality, analogous traditions, cultures, and economic systems. Therefore, it is justifiable to regard Amir Edigu as a son of the Nogai people and a shared historical figure for both Kazakhs and Nogais – a ruler of the Golden Horde who dedicated his life to the state's preservation and consolidation, and a figure deserving a distinguished place in Kazakh history.
Copyright (c) 2025 J. Kaliev, S. Duisen https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Information about the Bashkirs before the Mongol conquest
The history of the ethnogenesis of peoples constantly arouses great interest among researchers. The first written mentions of the ethnic group, information concerning their way of life, and descriptions of places of settlement help to reveal the stages of the formation of the people and reveal the full picture of ethnic history. A number of world-famous scientists have paid great attention to the history of the origin of the Bashkir people. This issue is examined in many ways in the works of leading researchers of the history and ethnogenesis of the Bashkirs, such as R.G. Kuzeev, N.A. Mazhitov, S.I. Rudenko, A.-Z.V. Togan. Based on the information contained in the works of medieval authors, in other well-known written sources, and archaeological research materials, the aforementioned scientists have studied various important stages of the development of the ethnic group. To study the geography of the settlement of the ancient Bashkir clans, the scientists have drawn on a wide range of Chinese, Arabic, Persian, and other sources. In this article, the analysis of the main views of leading scientists on the places of Bashkir settlements is made using the comparative historical method. Widely known published sources are used. They are the work of the Arab traveler Ibn Fadlan (10th century) and the dictionary of the Turkic languages of Mahmud Kashgari (11th century). The travel diary of Ibn Fadlan contains the earliest, detailed information about the language, customs, and places of settlement of the Bashkirs. The descriptions of the Arab traveler show that at the beginning of the 10th century, the majority of the Bashkirs, who were one of the Turkic ethnic groups, adhered to traditional beliefs. However, one of the guides accompanying their delegation was a Bashkir of the Muslim faith. In the notes of Ibn Fadlan, the hydronyms are clearly recorded, allowing us to outline the boundaries of residence of various ethnic groups. It should be noted that the Bashkir lands he described are still inhabited by Bashkirs who have retained the hydronym names used at that time. Ibn Fadlan's work clearly outlines the western boundaries of the Bashkir clans. Another important written source is the "Dictionary of Turkic Languages" by Mahmud Kashgari, which contains clear information about the languages of the largest Turkic clans. It contains descriptions of the Bashkir language, which is the closest to the Kipchak language. It is commonly known that the Bashkir language is included in the Kipchak subgroup of Turkic languages according to the generally accepted modern classification of Turkic languages, even at present. It is noteworthy that the dictionary contains a map of the settlement of the Turkic peoples, which is also accompanied by a text description in question. According to M. Kashgari, the Bashkirs lived West of the Irtysh River. Thus, the sources considered allow us to say that the Bashkirs lived in the territory between the Volga and the Irtysh, including the Southern Urals, before the period of conquests of Genghis Khan.
Copyright (c) 2025 A. Salikhov https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
Kokum-biy is a representative of the ruling elite of the Kazakh Khanate
This article is devoted to the study of the biography of Kokumbii, a significant figure in the ruling elite of the Kazakh Khanate, who came from the Kyrgyz Karachoro tribe. Historical and genealogical sources concerning the life of Kokumbii, are characterized by fragmentation and contradiction. According to Ch. ValikhanovKokumbii, was the closest associate of the Kazakh Khan Ishim Khan, supporting him during the confrontation with Tursun-Muhammad Khan. Valikhanov points out that after the death of Kokumbii, Ishim Khan, in recognition of his services, erected a mausoleum with a blue dome in Tashkent, known as "Kokemnin kok kumbezi" ("blue kumbez of Kokem"). A number of researchers identify this kumbez with the Kaldyrgach-biy mausoleum, which is part of a single burial complex with the mausoleum of the Mughal Yunus Khan on the territory of the Sheikhantaur cemetery. Currently, the mausoleum contains a sarcophagus with a plaque indicating the burial of Tole bi in it. However, according to the dating of architectural historians, the construction of the mausoleum dates back to the first half of the 15th century, which casts doubt on the reliability of the information about the burial of Kukem-biy and Tole bi in it. Ishim Khan's close ties with the Kyrgyz tribes, expressed in his declaration as the Kyrgyz khan during his departure to Mogolistan, served as the basis for the creation of a separate historical-heroic poem "Er Eshim" by the Kyrgyz. It is significant that this historical-heroic poem, which tells about the life of Er Eshim, does not mention Kukem-biy at all. All these data contradict the version of Ch. Valikhanov about the activities of Kukem-biy during the reign of Ishim Khan. According to another version, Kukem-biy is considered a close associate of the Kazakh Tauke Khan. M. Tynyshpayev points out that the Kyrgyz biy Kokym Karachorin managed a separate "Kyrgyz Alash" consisting of six Kazakh ones. This version, supported by an analysis of a wide range of sources, seems more substantiated from a historical point of view and requires further study. An analysis of sources related to the history of Tashkent also allows us to consider the possibility of identifying Kukem-biy with the ruler of the city in the mid-18th century, Kuchuk-biy or Kusek-biy.
Colonial Mediation in the Biographical Discourse of Kazakh Steppe Elites (mid-19th to early 20th Century)
The subject of the author's research is the representation in the discourse of biographies of Kazakh titled nobles of the Russian intelligentsia's ideas about the integration of the indigenous population of Central Asia into the system of social communication on the outskirts of the empire. The imperial power delegated to its experts – public figures, officials, scientists – the right of paternalistic tutelage over the new subjects to form a community of colonial mediators and to fulfil the tasks of empire-building in the situation of ethno-cultural diversity characteristic of the peripheral regions. The aim of the study is to reveal the content of the discourse of personal biographies of representatives of the Kazakh steppe aristocracy, constructed in the memoirs of imperial experts and recording the inclusion of these figures in the process of colonial mediation in the Central Asian regions in the second half of the 19th – early 20th centuries. A discourse on the biographies of Ch. Valikhanov, I.A. Altynsarin, and G.B. Valikhanov as presented in the memoirs of the Russian Federation. Valikhanov in the memoirs of Russian intellectuals, mastered by the methods of metacriticism and deconstruction of texts, made it possible to shift the research ‘optics’ from the trivial perception of the actors of the Kazakh social movement as foreigners in the service of the Russian Empire to the reception of their complex, often dual identity, which manifested itself on the one hand in the adoption of behavioural conventions of the Russian society, on the other – in the preservation and subsequent strengthening of ethno-cultural features of their own people. In the course of the study of the discourse of biographies, it was established that the phenomenon of colonial mediation was determined by the specifics of the integration of the titled nobility into the administrative, educational and social structures of Russia in the Central Asian region. This process was carried out in accordance with the Eurocentric ideas of the educated circles of the Russian Empire, which were moulded into an understanding of the Asian periphery as ‘Russia's own East’ and the indigenous population as ‘its own foreigners’ in relation to whom a model of intellectual and moral guardianship should be implemented. Cultural regeneration by means of Russian education and upbringing had an external effect and created a situation of quasi-comfort for the prominent leaders of the steppe aristocracy. As biographers themselves had to admit in their memoirs, within the line of personal and socio-political biography of prominent Kazakhs, there was a clear tendency to strengthen the national-cultural component of identity, which was expressed in the revision of attitudes and life values formed as a result of Russian influence.
Copyright (c) 2025 Zh. Absattarova, Zh. Mazhitova, J. Omurova https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/